Erling Barth

• Barth, Erling; Finseraas, Henning; Kjelsrud, Anders & Moene, Karl Ove (Kalle) (2023). Openness and the welfare state: risk and income effects in protection without protectionism. European Journal of Political Economy. 79. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2023.102405. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Have recent trends in globalization changed the positive link between trade openness and social insurance? The consensus view – that voters want better social insurance against income loss the more open the economy – is seemingly contested by the rise of new right-wing parties and the China shock. We present a theoretical framework of risk and income effects of globalization that captures the conventional view, but also shows when it will be modified: When the income effect is negative, the political support for social insurance can decline in spite of the risk effect. We construct an empirical measure of welfare state support across European regions and leverage the rapid integration of China into the world economy to show that higher import competition reduces the support for social insurance. Consistent with our framework, we use variations in employment losses between regions to decompose the overall effect of the shock into a (weak) positive risk effect and a (strong) negative income effect.

• Barth, Erling; Reisel, Liza & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2023). The Equality Hurdle: Resolving the Welfare State Paradox. Work, Employment and Society. s. 1–21. doi: 10.1177/09500170231155293. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  This article revisits a central tenet of the welfare state paradox, also known as the inclusion-equality trade-off. Using large-scale survey data for 31 European countries and the United States collected over a recent 15-year period, the article re-investigates the relationship between female labour force participation and gender segregation. Emphasising the transitional role played by the monetisation of domestic tasks, the study identifies a ‘gender equality hurdle’ that countries with the highest levels of female labour force participation have already passed. The results show that occupational gender segregation is currently lower in countries with high female labour force participation, regardless of public sector size. However, the findings also indicate that high relative levels of public spending on health, education and care is particularly conducive to desegregation. Hence, rather than being paradoxical, more equality in participation begets more equality in the labour market, as well as in gendered tasks in society overall.

• Barth, Erling; Finseraas, Henning; Kjelsrud, Anders & Moene, Karl Ove (2022). Hit by the Silk Road: how wage coordination in Europe mitigates the China shock. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics. doi: 10.1111/sjoe.12489. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Barth, Erling; Dale-Olsen, Harald; Schøne, Pål & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2022). Er arbeidsmarkedet blitt mindre stramt etter covid? Magma forskning og viten. Vis sammendrag

  Stramhet på arbeidsmarkedet måles ved forholdet mellom antall ledige stillinger som bedrifter ønsker å fylle, og antall som ikke er i jobb, men søker arbeid. Situasjonen under pandemien skiller seg fra tidligere erfaringer ved at antall permitterte skjøt kraftig i været. Siden NAVs tall for helt ledige også inkluderer helt permitterte, som har en lavere søkeaktivitet enn ledige uten jobb, får vi et skjevt bilde av stramheten på arbeidsmarkedet når vi bare teller opp antall utlysninger per helt ledige på vanlig måte. I denne artikkelen undersøker vi derfor hvordan stram­heten i arbeidsmarkedet har utviklet seg gjennom pandemien når vi korrigerer stramhets­indikatoren for antall permitterte. I motsetning til hva som har vært tilfellet tidligere, spiller denne korreksjonen en stor rolle for vår for­ståelse av stram­heten i arbeidsmarkedet. Vi ser også på stramhets­indikatoren for yrkesgrupper som er ulikt rammet av pandemien. Korrigerte tall viser at arbeidsmarkedet var svært stramt da samfunnet åpnet opp igjen siste høst.

• Barth, Erling; Davis, James C.; Freeman, Richard B. & McElheran, Kristina (2022). Twisting the demand curve: Digitalization and the older workforce. Journal of Econometrics. doi: 10.1016/j.jeconom.2021.12.003. Vis sammendrag

  Software represents a major and fast-growing share of firms’ capital investment, impacting demand for labor and what workers do on their jobs. Using U.S. Census Bureau panel data that link firms and workers, this paper estimates the effect of firm software capital on the earnings of workers by age group. We extend the AKM framework to include job-spell fixed effects that account for potential correlation between the worker-firm match and employee age, and to include time-varying firm effects that allow for a correlation between wage-enhancing productivity shocks and software investments. Within job-spell, capitalized software investment raises worker earnings. However, it does so at a rate that declines after the age of 50, to about zero beyond 65. Our data further show that software capital increases the earnings of high-wage workers relative to low-wage workers and earnings in high-wage firms relative to low-wage firms, thereby widening earnings inequality within and across firms.

• Barth, Erling; Kerr, Sari Pekkala & Olivetti, Claudia (2021). The dynamics of gender earnings differentials: Evidence from establishment data. European Economic Review. 134. doi: 10.1016/j.euroecorev.2021.103713. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Despite dramatic workforce gains by women in recent decades, a substantial gender earnings gap persists and widens over the course of men’s and women’s careers. Since there are earnings differences across establishments, a key question is the extent to which the widening of the gender pay gap over time arises from differences in career advances within the same establishment versus differential gains from job-to-job moves across establishments. Using a unique match between the 2000 Decennial Census of the United States and the Longitudinal Employer Household Dynamics (LEHD) data, we find that both channels are important and affect workers differently by education. For the college-educated the increasing gap is for the most part due to differential earnings growth within establishment. The between-establishment component explains only 27 percent of the widening of the total gender pay gap for this group. For workers without college degree, the establishment component is the main driver of the, relatively small, widening of the gender earnings gap. For both education groups, marriage plays a crucial role in the establishment component of the increasing earnings gap.

• Barth, Erling & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2021). Fortsatt polarisering i det norske arbeidsmarkedet? Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 38(1), s. 23–40. doi: 10.18261/issn.1504-7989-2021-01-02. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Arbeidsmarkedene i vestlige land har blitt polarisert over tid ved at middelklasseyrker har blitt automatisert bort. Denne prosessen er tidligere også dokumentert i Norge. Ettersom automatiseringen og digitaliseringen har fortsatt å øke, undersøker vi i denne artikkelen om de polariserende tendensene fortsatt pågår. Ved å analysere norske registerdata for perioden 2004-2018 finner vi stadig økende etterspørsel i toppen av yrkesfordelingen, men ikke økt etterspørsel lengre ned i fordelingen. Oppgraderingen og økt etterspørsel i toppen av arbeidsmarkedet, fortsatt fall i etterspørselen på midten, dempes av at relative lønninger har økt på toppen og falt på bunnen.

• Barth, Erling; Moene, Karl Ove (Kalle) & Pedersen, Axel West (2021). Rising Inequality in the Egalitarian Nordics. I Fischer, Georg & Strauss, Robert (Red.), Europe's Income, Wealth, Consumption, and Inequality. Oxford University Press. s. 219–246. doi: 10.1093/oso/9780197545706.003.0006. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Barth, Erling; Bryson, Alex & Dale-Olsen, Harald (2020). Hva betyr skattefradraget for oppslutningen om fagforeninger? Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 37, s. 109–123. doi: 10.18261/issn.1504-7989-2020-01-02-07.
• Albæk, Karsten; Asplund, Rita; Barth, Erling; Lindahl, Lena; Strøm, Marte & Vanhala, Pekka (2020). Bedre sent enn aldri? Hvordan sen fullføring av videregående skole påvirker tidlig karriere. Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 37(01-02), s. 124–141. doi: 10.18261/issn.1504-7989-2020-01-02-08. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Får ungdom i Norden som fullfører videregående skole mellom 21 og 28 års alder bedre tilgang til arbeidsmarkedet enn de som ikke har fullført ved 28? Vi finner at de som har fullført innen 28 års alder, har 12-15 prosentpoeng lavere sannsynlighet for å være NEET (Not in Employment, Education or Training) enn de som ikke har fullført. Når vi kontrollerer for sosioøkonomisk bakgrunn og særlig for tidlige skole-til-arbeid overganger mellom 16 og 20 år forsvinner mye av forskjellene mellom land, men fortsatt gjenstår de fleste av forskjellene mellom de som fullfører sent og de som ikke fullfører.

• Barth, Erling; Bryson, Alex & Dale-Olsen, Harald (2020). Union Density Effects on Productivity and Wages. Economic Journal. 130(631), s. 1898–1936. doi: 10.1093/EJ/UEAA048. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  We exploit changes in tax subsidies for union members in Norway to identify the effects of changes in firm level union density on productivity and wages. Increased deductions in taxable income for union members led to higher membership rates and contributed to a lower decline in union membership rates over time in Norway. Accounting for selection effects and the potential endogeneity of unionisation, the results show that increasing union density at the firm level leads to a substantial increase in both productivity and wages. The wage effect is larger in more productive firms, consistent with rent-sharing models.

• Barth, Erling; Keute, Anna Lene; Schøne, Pål; von Simson, Kristine & Steffensen, Kjartan (2019). NEET Status and Early versus Later Skills among Young Adults: Evidence from linked register-PIAAC data. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2019.1659403. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Do skills protect against exclusion in adult ages, and how important are the skills acquired before the age of 16 years versus those acquired later on? We match the scores on numeracy and literacy skills from the 2011 PIAAC for young adults backwards to grade point average (GPA) data from compulsory school education, measured at the age of 16 years (GPA16), and forwards to employment and education register data 2 years after the PIAAC test. There is a high correlation between GPA16 and PIAAC scores even when controlling for parental background, health status, and completion of post-compulsory school education. Including both GPA16 and PIAAC scores in a model of the probability of NEET status 2 years after the PIAAC test shows three times as large differences associated with GPA16 scores than with PIAAC scores, even though the PIAAC test is taken closer in time than the GPA16 results.

• Barth, Erling; Cools, Sara & Strøm, Marte (2019). Geografisk variasjon i sosial mobilitet: Polarisering i arbeidslivet, fraflytting og mødres yrkesaktivitet. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning. 60(3), s. 300–308. doi: 10.18261/issn.1504-291X-2019-03-08. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Barth, Erling; Davis, James Creece & Freeman, Richard (2018). Augmenting the Human Capital Earnings Equation With Measures of Where People Work. Journal of Labor Economics. 36, s. S71–S97. doi: 10.1086/694187. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  We augment standard log earnings equations for workers in US manufacturing with variables reflecting measured and unmeasured attributes of their employer. Using panel employee-establishment data, we find that establishment-level employment, education of coworkers, capital equipment per worker, and firm-level R&D intensity affects earnings substantially. Unobserved characteristics of employers captured by employer fixed effects also contribute to the variance of log earnings, although less than unobserved characteristics of individuals captured by individual fixed effects. The observed and unobserved measures of employers mediate the effects of individual characteristics on earnings and increase earnings inequality through sorting of workers among establishments

• Barth, Erling & Ognedal, Tone (2018). Tax evasion in firms. Labour. 32(1), s. 23–44. doi: 10.1111/labr.12111.
• Goldin, Claudia; Kerr, Sari Pekkala; Olivetti, Claudia & Barth, Erling (2017). The Expanding Gender Earnings Gap: Evidence from the LEHD-2000 Census. The American Economic Review. 107(5), s. 110–114. doi: 10.1257/aer.p20171065. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Barth, Erling; Davis, James Creece; Freeman, Richard & Kerr, Sari Pekkala (2017). Weathering the Great Recession: Variation in Employment Responses, by Establishments and Countries. The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences. 3(3), s. 50–69. doi: 10.7758/rsf.2017.3.3.03. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  This paper finds that U.S. employment changed differently relative to output in the Great Recession and recovery than in most other advanced countries or in the United States in earlier recessions. Instead of hoarding labor, U.S. firms reduced employment proportionately more than output in the Great Recession, with establishments that survived the downturn contracting jobs massively. Diverging from the aggregate pattern, U.S. manufacturers reduced employment less than output while the elasticity of employment to gross output varied widely among establishments. In the recovery, growth of employment was dominated by job creation in new establishments. The variegated responses of employment to output challenges extant models of how enterprises adjust employment over the business cycle

• Barth, Erling & Moene, Karl Ove (2017). Reell eller Ideell Konkurranse. Samfunnsøkonomen. 131(2), s. 92–102. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Konkurranse dreier seg ikke bare om priser og kostnader. Derfor kan ikke små åpne økonomier gjøre det bra ved bare å produsere det samme som andre land, på samme måte, men med lavere kostnader. Den reelle konkurransen dreier seg om hva en skal gjøre og hvordan en skal gjøre det. Den dreier seg like mye om organisering, institusjoner og fordelingspolitikk som om nye metoder, nye teknologier og nye produkter. Troen på anbefalingene fra institusjonsfri økonomisk teori kan stå i veien for den nødvendige institusjonelle oppfinnsomheten.

• Barth, Erling; Schøne, Pål & von Simson, Kristine (2016). Sammenhengen mellom ferdigheter fra ungdomsskolen og ferdigheter i PIAAC-undersøkelsen. Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 33(4), s. 349–359. doi: 10.18261/issn.1504-7989-2016-04-04.
• Barth, Erling; Bryson, Alex; Davis, James C. & Freeman, Richard (2016). It's Where You Work: Increases in the Dispersion of Earnings across Establishments and Individuals in the United States. Journal of Labor Economics. 34(2), s. S67–S97. doi: 10.1086/684045. Vis sammendrag

  This paper analyzes the role of establishments in the upward trend in dispersion of earnings that has become a central topic in economic analysis and policy debate. It decomposes changes in the variance of log earnings among individuals into the part due to changes in earnings among establishments and the part due to changes in earnings within establishments. The main finding is that much of the 1970s–2010s increase in earnings inequality results from increased dispersion of the earnings among the establishments where individuals work. Our results direct attention to the role of establishment-level pay setting and economic adjustments in earnings inequality.

• Barth, Erling & Moene, Karl Ove (2016). The Equality Multiplier: How Wage Compression and Welfare Empowerment Interact. Journal of the European Economic Association. 14(5), s. 1011–1037. doi: 10.1111/jeea.12163. Vis sammendrag

  We explore how more wage equality fuels the generosity of the welfare state via political competition in elections, and how a more generous welfare state fuels wage equality via empowerment of weak groups in the labor market. Together the two mechanisms may generate a cumulative process that explains how equality multiplies, and why countries with more equal distributions of market outcomes also have stronger welfare states. The complementarity between wage setting and welfare spending can explain why almost equally rich countries differ so much in economic and social equality among their citizens.

• Barth, Erling; Moene, Karl Ove (Kalle) & Willumsen, Fredrik (2015). Reprint of "The Scandinavian model-An interpretation". Journal of Public Economics. 127, s. 17–29. doi: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2015.05.006.
• Barth, Erling; Moene, Karl Ove & Pedersen, Axel West (2015). Trygd og sysselsetting i et internasjonalt perspektiv. I Bay, Ann-Helén; Hagelund, Anniken & Hatland, Aksel (Red.), For mange på trygd? : Velferdspolitiske spenninger. Cappelen Damm Akademisk. s. 153–170.
• Barth, Erling & Nergaard, Kristine (2015). Kollektive partsforhold: Status quo eller endring? I Dale-Olsen, Harald (Red.), Norsk arbeidsliv i turbulente tider. Gyldendal Akademisk. s. 83–104.
• Barth, Erling; Bratsberg, Bernt & Raaum, Oddbjørn (2015). Prestasjonslønn i nye former. I Dale-Olsen, Harald (Red.), Norsk arbeidsliv i turbulente tider. Gyldendal Akademisk. s. 121–136.
• Nergaard, Kristine; Barth, Erling & Dale-Olsen, Harald (2015). Lavere organisasjonsgrad, et spørsmål om nykommere? Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 32(1-2), s. 91–110. doi: 10.18261/issn.1504-7989-2020-01-02-07. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Albæk, Karsten; Asplund, Rita; Barth, Erling; Lindahl, Lena & von Simson, Kristine (2015). Ungdomsarbeidsløshet i Norden. Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 32(1-2), s. 78–90. Vis sammendrag

  Denne artikkelen tar for seg ungdomsarbeidsløshet målt på flere måter. For det første spiller det en stor rolle om man regner arbeidsløsheten for ungdom i prosent av befolkningen eller i prosent av arbeidsstyrken. For det andre gjør det stor forskjell om man tar med blant de arbeidsløse ungdom som oppgir å ha skolegang eller studier som hovedaktivitet. De nordiske landene blir mer like og kommer langt bedre ut i en internasjonal sammenlikning om man trekker studenter ut av arbeidsløshetstallene. Artikkelen avslutter med en diskusjon av hvilke tall som bør benyttes til hvilke formål.

• Barth, Erling & Moene, Karl Ove (2015). Missing the Link? On the Political Economy of Nordic Egalitarianism. I Andersen, Torben M.; Bergman, U. Michael & Hougaard Jensen, Svend E. (Red.), Reform Capacity and Macroeconomic Performance in the Nordic Countries. Oxford University Press. s. 50–68.
• Barth, Erling; Finseraas, Henning & Moene, Karl Ove (2015). Political Reinforcement: How Rising Inequality Curbs Manifested Welfare Generosity. American Journal of Political Science (AJPS). 59(3), s. 565–577. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12129. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  We propose a political reinforcement hypothesis, suggesting that rising inequality moves party politics on welfare state issues to the right, strengthening rather than modifying the impact of inequality. We model policy platforms by incorporating ideology and opportunism of party members and interests and sympathies of voters. If welfare spending is a normal good within income classes, a majority of voters moves rightward when inequality increases. As a response, the left, in particular, shift their welfare policy platform toward less generosity. We find support for our arguments using data on the welfare policy platforms of political parties in 22 OECD countries.

• Barth, Erling; Hardoy, Ines; Schøne, Pål & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2014). Hva betyr høy yrkesdeltakelse for kjønnssegregering? I Reisel , Liza & Teigen, Mari (Red.), Kjønnsdeling og etniske skiller på arbeidsmarkedet. Gyldendal Akademisk. s. 108–118.
• Barth, Erling & Moene, Karl Ove (2014). When Institutions Reciprocate: Turning European Social Models Around. I Dølvik, Jon Erik & Martin, Andrew (Harvard CES) (Red.), European Social Models from Crisis to Crisis. Employment and Inequality in the Era of Monetary Integration. Oxford University Press. s. 306–324. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198717966.003.0010.
• Albæk, Karsten; Asplund, Rita; Barth, Erling & von Simson, Kristine (2014). Early School leaving and Labour market prospects. I Valkonen, Tarmo & Vihriälä, Vesa (Red.), The Nordic model - challenged but capable of reform. Nordic Council of Ministers. s. 235–259. doi: 10.6027/TN2014-531.
• Barth, Erling; Moene, Karl Ove & Willumsen, Fredrik (2014). The Scandinavian model-An interpretation. Journal of Public Economics. 117(Sept.), s. 60–72. doi: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.04.001. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  The small open economies in Scandinavia have for long periods had high work effort, small wage differentials, high productivity, and a generous welfare state. To understand how this might be an economic and political equilibrium we combine models of collective wage bargaining, creative job destruction, and welfare spending. The two-tier system of wage bargaining provides microeconomic efficiency and wage compression. Combined with a vintage approach to the process of creative destruction we show how wage compression fuels investments, enhances average productivity and increases the mean wage by allocating more of the work force to the most modern activities. Finally, we show how the political support of welfare spending is fueled by both a higher mean wage and a lower wage dispersion.

• Barth, Erling & von Simson, Kristine (2013). Ulike veier gjennom videregående: Hva skjer de neste ti årene? Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 30(4), s. 313–333.
• Barth, Erling & Moene, Karl Ove (2013). Why do small open economies have such small wage differentials? Nordic Economic Policy Review. 1, s. 139–170.
• Bryson, Alex; Barth, Erling & Dale-Olsen, Harald (2013). The Effects of Organizational Change on Worker Well-being and the Moderating Role of Trade Unions. Industrial & labor relations review. 66(4), s. 989–1011. doi: 10.1177/001979391306600410. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Barth, Erling; Cappelen, Alexander Wright & Ognedal, Tone (2013). Fair tax evasion. Nordic Journal of Political Economy. 38, s. 1–16. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.2262192. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Barth, Erling & Moene, Karl Ove (2012). Employment as a Price or a Prize of Equality: A Descriptive Analysis. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies. 2(2), s. 5–33. doi: 10.19154/njwls.v2i2.2355.
• Barth, Erling; Bratsberg, Bernt & Raaum, Oddbjørn (2012). Immigrant wage profiles within and between establishments. Labour Economics. 19(4), s. 541–556. doi: 10.1016/j.labeco.2012.05.009.
• Bryson, Alex; Barth, Erling & Dale-Olsen, Harald (2012). Do higher wages come at a price? Journal of Economic Psychology. 33(1), s. 251–263. doi: 10.1016/j.joep.2011.10.005. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Barth, Erling; Bratsberg, Bernt; Hægeland, Torbjørn & Raaum, Oddbjørn (2012). Performance pay, union bargaining and within-firm wage inequality. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics. 74(3), s. 327–362. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0084.2011.00656.x. Vis sammendrag

  Theory predicts that performance pay boosts wage dispersion. Workers retain a share of individual productivity shocks and high-efficiency workers receive compensation for greater effort. Collective bargaining can mitigate the effect of performance pay on wage inequality by easing monitoring of common effort standards and group-based pay schemes. Analyses of longitudinal employer–employee data show that the introduction of performance-related pay raises wage inequality in non-union firms, but not in firms with high union density. Although performance-related pay appears to be on the rise, the overall impact on wage dispersion is likely to be small, particularly in European countries with influential unions.

• Barth, Erling & Schøne, Pål (2012). Best på skolen. Best på jobben? Samfunnsøkonomen. 126(9), s. 14–25. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Barth, Erling; Asplund, Rita; Lundborg, Per & Nilsen, Kjersti Misje (2011). Polarization of the Nordic Labour Markets. Finnish economic papers. 24(2), s. 87–110.
• Barth, Erling & Dale-Olsen, Harald (2011). Employer Size or Skill Group Size Effect on Wages? Industrial & labor relations review. 64(2), s. 341–355. doi: 10.1177/001979391106400207.
• Barth, Erling (2010). Den Norske Likelønnskommisjonen og Lønnsdannelsen i Offentlig Sektor. Samfundsøkonomen. s. 38–43.
• Barth, Erling (2010). Ligeløn : Analyser og tiltag. I Deding, Mette & Holt, Helle (Red.), Hvorfor har vi lønforskelle mellem kvinder og mænd? : En antologi om ligeløn i Danmark. SFI-Det nationale forskningscenter for velfærd. s. 219–237.
• Barth, Erling & Moene, Karl Ove (2010). Små lønnsforskjeller og store velferdsstater :. Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 27(1/2), s. 77–86.
• Barth, Erling & Dale-Olsen, Harald (2009). Monopsonistic Discrimination, Worker Turnover, and the Gender Wage Gap. Labour Economics. 16(5), s. 589–597. doi: 10.1016/j.labeco.2009.02.004.
• Moene, Karl Ove; Mehlum, Halvor; Barth, Erling; Lind, Jo Thori & Krüger, Ingrid (2009). Den skandinaviske modellen og økonomisk ulikhet. I Cappelen, Ådne (Red.), Fordelingsutvalget. Finansdepartementet. s. 328–351.
• Barth, Erling & Moene, Karl Ove (2009). The Equality Mulitplier. NBER Technical Working Paper Series.
• Barth, Erling; Bratsberg, Bernt; Hægeland, Torbjørn & Raaum, Oddbjørn (2008). Who Pays for Performance? International journal of manpower. 29(1), s. 8–29.

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• Dolton, Peter; Asplund, Rita & Barth, Erling (2009). Education and Inequality across Europe. Edward Elgar Publishing. 350 s.

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• Dale-Olsen, Harald; Barth, Erling & Bryson, Alex (2022). Turning Non-members into Members: Do Public Subsidies to Union Membership Matter? University College London.
• Barth, Erling; Dale-Olsen, Harald; Schøne, Pål & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2021). Chutes and ladders? Job Opportunities for Generation Covid . IZA Institute of labor economics. Vis sammendrag

  With a focus on jobs for youth, this paper analyses the development of job postings in Norway during the first and second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Jobs for youth are defined by the top 20 3-digit occupations for young workers. Job postings in these occupations took a larger hit than other jobs. We also identify the top 20 occupations for entrants right after completed highest education. Separate analyses by education reveal that entry jobs for young people with lower education declined the most during the pandemic. Using a difference in difference framework with 2018 and 2019 as reference years, we show that the decline started before “lock-down” policies were in place, but that the decline was even larger during the lock-down. Concurrent with re-opening phases in the economy, job posting rates improved, but did not reach the levels comparable to those in 2018 and 2019.

• Barth, Erling; Finseraas, Henning; Kjelsrud, Anders Grøn & Moene, Karl Ove (Kalle) (2021). Does the Rise of China Lead to the Fall of European Welfare States? IZA Institute of Labor Economics. Vis sammendrag

  Have recent trends in globalization changed the positive link between trade openness and social insurance? The consensus view - that voters want better social insurance against income loss the more open the economy - is seemingly contested by the rise of populism and the China shock. We present a theoretical framework of risk and income effects of globalization that captures the conventional view, but also shows when it will be modified: When the income effect is negative, the political support for social insurance can decline in spite of the risk effect. We construct an empirical measure of welfare state support across European regions and leverage the rapid integration of China into the world economy to show that higher import competition reduces the support for social insurance. Consistent with our framework, we decompose the overall effect of the shock into a (weak) positive risk effect and a (strong) negative income effect

• Barth, Erling; Davis, James Creece; Freeman, Richard B. & McElheran, Kristina (2020). Twisting the Demand Curve: Digitalization and the Older Workforce . NBER. Vis sammendrag

  This paper uses U.S. Census Bureau panel data that link firm software investment to worker earnings. We regress the log of earnings of workers by age group on the software investment by their employing firm. To unpack the potential causal factors for differential software effects by age group we extend the AKM framework by including job-spell fixed effects that allow for a correlation between the worker-firm match and age and by including time-varying firm effects that allow for a correlation between wage-enhancing productivity shocks and software investments. Within job-spell, software capital raises earnings at a rate that declines post age 50 to about zero after age 65. By contrast, the effects of non-IT equipment investment on earnings increase for workers post age 50. The difference between the software and non-IT equipment effects suggests that our results are attributable to the technology rather than to age-related bargaining power. Our data further show that software capital increases the earnings of highwage workers relative to low-wage workers and the earnings in high-wage firms relative to lowwage firms, and may thus widen earnings inequality within and across firms

• Criscuolo, Chiara; Hijzen, Alexander; Schwellnus, Cyrille; Barth, Erling; Fabling, Richard & Fialho, Priscilla [Vis alle 10 forfattere av denne artikkelen] (2020). Workforce composition, productivity and pay: the role of firms in wage inequality. OECD. Vis sammendrag

  In many OECD countries, low productivity growth has coincided with rising inequality. Widening wage and productivity gaps between firms may have contributed to both developments. This paper uses a new harmonised cross-country linked employer-employee dataset for 14 OECD countries to analyse the role of firms in wage inequality. The main finding is that, on average across countries, changes in the dispersion of average wages between firms explain about half of the changes in overall wage inequality. Two thirds of these changes in between-firm wage inequality are accounted for by changes in productivity-related premia that firms pay their workers above common market wages. The remaining third can be attributed to changes in workforce composition, including the sorting of high-skilled workers into high-paying firms. Over all, these results suggest that firms play an important role in explaining wage inequality as wages are driven to a significant extent by firm performance rather than being exclusively determined by workers’ earnings characteristics

• Barth, Erling; Finseraas, Henning; Kjelsrud, Anders Grøn & Moene, Karl Ove (Kalle) (2020). Hit by the Silk Road: How Wage Coordination in Europe Mitigates the China Shock. IZA – Institute of Labor Economics.
• Barth, Erling; Røed, Marianne; Schøne, Pål & Umblijs, Janis (2020). How Robots Change Within-Firm Wage Inequality. IZA Institute of Labor Economics. Vis sammendrag

  Using novel matched employer-employee register data with firm-level information on the introduction of industrial robots, this paper analysis the impact of robots on the wages of workers in the manufacturing sector. The results show that industrial robots increase wages for high-skilled workers relative to low-skilled workers, hence robots increase the skill-premium within firms. Furthermore, we find that employees in managerial positions benefit more from robotisation than those in STEM or professional occupations. Overall, our results suggest that the introduction of industrial robots has a positive effect on the average wages of manufacturing workers in Norway

• Albæk, Karsten; Asplund, Rita; Barth, Erling; Lindahl, Lena; Strøm, Marte & Vanhala, Pekka (2019). Better Late than Never? How Late Completion Affects the Early Career of Dropouts. IZA Institute of Labor Economics. 2019(12560). Vis sammendrag

  Across the OECD countries, dropouts from upper secondary schooling fare worse in the labor market, with higher NEET rates more spells of unemployment and lower earnings. Among the dropouts, there are however significant shares who complete at a later age. In this paper, we thus ask the question: Does it pay for young adults who do not complete upper secondary schooling by the age of 21, to do so at some point during the subsequent 7 years, that is, before turning 28? In all four Nordic countries under scrutiny, we find that late completion lowers the probability of being outside employment, education or training (NEET) at age 28. Moreover, the exact age of completion does not seem to matter. Our estimates are robust to the inclusion of extensive controls for socioeconomic background and early schooling paths, and similar to the ones produced by event history analysis with individual fixed effects. This indicates that late completion of upper secondary schooling plays an important role for the labor market inclusion of young dropouts.

• Dale-Olsen, Harald; Strøm, Marte; Østbakken, Kjersti Misje & Barth, Erling (2018). Avtaleformer, lønnsvekst og lønnsspredning. Institutt for samfunnsforskning. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  I denne rapporten ser vi nærmere på utviklingen i avtaleformer, lønnsvekst og lønnsspredning gjennom en litteraturgjennomgang og gjennom å anvende data fra Norge i perioden 1997 til 2014. Vi anvender data fra Lønnsstatistikken, fra populasjonsomfattende registerdata (sammenkobling av Aa-registeret og LTO-registeret) og fra virksomhetsbaserte spørreundersøkelser (ABU 1997/2003/2012). Vi finner at kun mindre endringer i avtalesystemet i Norge har funnet sted i senere tid, og kontinuitet preger norsk økonomi i så måte. Dog skal det sies at i både privat og offentlig sektor skjedde det viktige endringer på 90-tallet og begynnelsen av 2000-tallet, som innebar en viss desentralisering. Mønstrene blir mindre klare på 2000-tallet for de fleste private næringer. Våre undersøkelser viser at lønnsspredningen øker i perioden. Denne utviklingen deler vi med de fleste industrialiserte land. Vi viser samtidig at det ikke nødvendigvis er slik at lønnsspredningen er større på områder med stor grad av lokal lønnsdannelse, eller at veksten i lønnsspredning er størst på de områdene som har en tydeligere desentralisering av lønnsdannelsen. Dekomponeringen av lønnsspredningen viser dog at lønnsforskjellene er større mellom virksomheter enn de er innad i virksomheter. Vi finner at virksomheter hvor lønnen kun fastsettes gjennom lokale forhandlinger, har noe høyere lønn i gjennomsnitt enn virksomheter hvor lønnen fastsettes sentralt, men hvor lokale lønnsforhandlinger kommer som et supplement. På toppen av lønnshierarkiet er forskjellen enda større, men på bunnen er den lik. Individuell lønnsfastsettelse er uansett om en betrakter bunnen, gjennomsnittet eller toppen, assosiert med klart høyere lønn. Individuelle lønnsavtaler er også assosiert med høyere lønnsspredning generelt, og da særlig på toppen av lønnsfordelingen. Men dette kan langt på vei forklares med marked, eierskap og lokale forhold. Både for kvinner og menn vil lokal lønnsdannelse og individuell lønnsfastsettelse være assosiert med høyere lønn, også innad i næringer, men lønnsforskjellene mellom kvinner og menn innad i næringer blir ikke påvirket av avtaleformene. Vi finner heller ikke støtte for antakelsen om at høy lønnsspredning er nødvendig for å oppnå høy lønnsvekst. Lønnsoppgjørene ser ut til å følge konjunkturutviklingen tett. Det ser i litt mindre grad ut til at de gjennomsnittlige tilleggene følger konjunkturene i offentlig sektor. Vi finner, over hele lønnsfordelingen, en negativ sammenheng mellom sentrale tillegg og lokale tillegg. De sentrale tilleggene blir imidlertid ikke fullstendig kompensert lokalt. Det betyr at størrelsen på de sentrale oppgjørene er styrende for størrelsen på lønnsveksten over hele inntektsfordelingen, selv om det ikke er krone for krone. Vi fant at sentrale tillegg demper lønnsspredningen, særlig på bunnen, og spesielt for funksjonærer. Samtidig så vi at lønnsspredningen dempes mest for kvinner, og særlig for ikke-funksjonærer. Selv om vi avdekker en dempende sammenheng mellom de sentrale tilleggene og lønnsspredningen, så er denne sammenhengen svak. Det er veldig mye annet som er viktig for lønnsspredningen i Norge. I et likelønnsperspektiv er det viktig å være klar over at det lønnsutjevnende elementet i de faste tilleggene slik disse er utformet i dag, ikke er spesielt viktig som virkemiddel for å oppnå likelønn.

• Østbakken, Kjersti Misje; Reisel, Liza; Schøne, Pål; Barth, Erling & Hardoy, Ines (2017). Kjønnssegregering og mobilitet i det norske arbeidsmarkedet. Institutt for samfunnsforskning.
• Barth, Erling; Kerr, Sari Pekkala & Olivetti, Claudia (2017). The Dynamics of Gender Earnings Differentials: Evidence from Establishment Data. NBER Working Paper # 23381. Vis sammendrag

  We use a unique match between the 2000 Decennial Census of the United States and the Longitudinal Employer Household Dynamics (LEHD) data to analyze how much of the increase in the gender earnings gap over the lifecycle comes from shifts in the sorting of men and women across high- and low-pay establishments and how much is due to differential earnings growth within establishments. We find that for the college educated the increase is substantial and, for the most part, due to differential earnings growth within establishment by gender. The between component is also important. Differential mobility between establishments by gender can explain 27 percent of the widening of the pay gap for this group. For those with no college, the, relatively small, increase of the gender gap over the lifecycle can be fully explained by differential moves by gender across establishments. The evidence suggests that, for both education groups, the between-establishment component of the increasing wage gap is due almost entirely to those who are married.

• Barth, Erling; Davis, James Creece & Freeman, Richard (2016). Augmenting the Human Capital Earnings Equation with Measures of Where People Work. NBER Working Paper #22512. Vis sammendrag

  We augment standard ln earnings equations with variables reflecting unmeasured attributes of workers and measured and unmeasured attributes of their employer. Using panel employee-establishment data for US manufacturing we find that the observable employer characteristics that most impact earnings are: number of workers, education of co-workers, capital Equipment per worker, industry in which the establishment produces, and R&D intensity of the firm. Employer fixed effects also contribute to the variance of ln earnings, though substantially less than individual fixed effects. In addition to accounting for some of the variance in earnings, the observed and unobserved measures of employers mediate the estimated effects of individual characteristics on earnings and increasing earnings inequality through the sorting of workers among establishments.

• Barth, Erling; Davis, James C.; Freeman, Richard & Kerr, Sari Pekkala (2016). Weathering the Great Recession: Variation in Employment Responses by Establishments and Countries. NBER Working Paper #22432. Vis sammendrag

  This paper finds that US employment changed differently relative to output in the Great Recession and recovery than in most other advanced countries or in the US in earlier recessions. Instead of hoarding labor, US firms reduced employment proportionately more than output in the Great Recession, with establishments that survived the downturn contracting jobs massively. Diverging from the aggregate pattern, US manufacturers reduced employment less than output while the elasticity of employment to gross output varied widely among establishments. In the recovery, growth of employment was dominated by job creation in new establishments. The variegated responses of employment to output challenges extant models of how enterprises adjust employment over the business cycle.

• Barth, Erling; Jon Marius, Vaag Iversen; Schøne, Pål; von Simson, Kristine & Strøm, Bjarne (2016). Sammenhengen mellom ferdigheter og arbeidsmarkedssituasjon for utsatte grupper. Institutt for samfunnsforskning. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Betydningen av ulike typer ferdigheter for å få innpass på arbeidsmarkedet har fått økt oppmerksomhet de siste årene, både blant beslutningstakere og blant forskere. Det er også god dokumentasjon på at etterspørselen etter personer med høy kompetanse har økt de siste tiårene, og at dette i noen land har ført til større lønnsforskjeller mellom høyt og lavt kvalifiserte arbeidstakere. Det er dokumentert at rask teknologisk endring er en viktig mekanisme bak denne utviklingen i etterspørselen etter arbeidskraft. En utfordring for de fleste industrialiserte land er hvordan man i tider med hurtig teknologisk endring og økte krav til kompetanse også klarer å inkludere personer med lavere kvalifikasjoner. Tall fra OECDs PIAAC-undersøkelse, for både Norge og andre land, viser at arbeidsmarkedsdeltakelsen er betydelig lavere for personer som har svake ferdigheter. I denne rapporten benytter vi PIAAC-undersøkelsen for å studere sammenhengen mellom ferdigheter, ulike indikatorer på utsatthet, og arbeidsmarkedsdeltakelse. Vårt hovedmål på utsatthet er selvopplevd helse. Vi finner at både helse og ferdigheter har betydning for arbeidsmarkedsdeltakelse. I en analyse hvor vi forsøker å kvantifisere den relative betydningen av helse og ferdigheter, antyder resultatene at helse er viktigere enn ferdigheter.

• Barth, Erling; Albæk, Karsten; Asplund, Rita; Lindahl, Lena; von Simson, Kristine & Vanhala, Pekka (2015). Youth Unemployment and Inactivity. A comparison of School to work transitions and Labour market outcomes in four Nordic countries. Nordic Council of Ministers. 2015(548).
• Strøm, Marte; Barth, Erling & Schøne, Pål (2014). Er lønnsgapet mellom kvinner og men i ferd med å lukkes? NOU 2015:6, Arbeids- og sosialdepartementet.
• Barth, Erling; Bryson, Alex; Davis, James C. & Freeman, Richard (2014). It's Where You Work: Increases in Earnings Dispersion across Establishments and Individuals in the U.S. NBER Working Paper #20447.
• Barth, Erling; Hardoy, Ines; Schøne, Pål & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2013). Lønnsforskjeller mellom kvinner og menn : Hva har skjedd på 2000-tallet? Institutt for samfunnsforskning. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  At kvinner tjener mindre enn menn er et gjennomgående funn. I denne rapporten studerer vi timelønnsutviklingen for kvinner og menn i perioden 2002-2011. Vi analyserer betydningen av kjønnssegregering på næring og yrke, betydningen av utdanningsnivå, sammenhengen mellom timelønn og alder, og vi analyserer sammenhengen mellom barn og timelønn separat for kvinner og menn. I tillegg analyserer vi inntektsforskjeller der vi også inkluderer personer som ikke er aktive på arbeidsmarkedet. Resultatene viser en svak tilnærming mellom kvinners og menns timelønn. Den ujusterte gjennomsnittlige timelønnsforskjellen har falt fra 14,2 prosent til 12,7 prosent i perioden 2002-2011. Når vi sammenligner kvinner og menn som jobber i samme yrke innen samme næring er lønnsgapet på 7,1 prosent i 2011. Dette viser at timelønnsforskjellen henger sammen med det kjønnssegregerte arbeidsmarkedet. Likevel eksisterer det et ikke ubetydelig lønnsgap, selv etter kontroll for detaljert næring og yrke. Timelønnsforskjellene mellom kvinner og menn vokser tidlig i karrieren for de yngste kohortene, mens vi ser en viss tilnærming mot slutten av karrieren for de eldste. Sammenhengen mellom barn og timelønn er generelt negativ for kvinner, mens den er positiv for menn. Over tid ser vi at den negative sammenhengen mellom timelønn og barn blir svakere. Inntektsanalysene våre viser at menn har mest kapitalinntekter som bidrar til økte inntektsforskjeller, kvinner har mest offentlige overføringer som bidrar til en reduksjon i forskjellene, mens skatt har en omfordelende effekt og gir mindre inntektsforskjeller. Vi finner også at når vi kontrollerer for forskjeller i utdanning og erfaring, er inntektsforskjellene større innen familie enn mellom tilfeldig valgte kvinner og menn, noe som indikerer en viss form for spesialisering innad i husholdningen.

• Barth, Erling; Cappelen, Alexander Wright & Ognedal, Tone (2013). Fair tax evasion. Institutt for samfunnsøkonomi, Norges Handelshøyskole. Vis sammendrag

  In this paper we analyse how fairness considerations, in particular considerations of just income distribution, affect whether or not people find tax evasion justifiable and their willingness to evade taxes. Using data from the Norwegian “Hidden Labour Market Survey” we show that individuals with low hourly wages and long working hours have a higher probability of justifying tax evasion. These are individuals that arguably are treated unfairly in a tax system that taxes an individual’s total income without taking into account how many hours the individual has worked. The same individuals are also more willing and likely to take home income without reporting it to the tax authorities. The results are consistent with a model in which individuals make a trade-off between economic gains and fairness considerations when they make decisions about tax evasion. Taken together our results suggest that considerations of fair income distribution are important for the analysis of tax evasion.

• Barth, Erling & Moene, Karl Ove (2012). The Equality Multiplier: How Wage Setting and Welfare Spending Make Similar Countries Diverge". IZA. 2012(6494).

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• Schøne, Pål; Røed, Marianne; Barth, Erling & Umblijs, Janis (2023). Does Firm-Automation Reduce Offshoring? Vis sammendrag

  In this paper we analyse the effects of automation on offshoring, using detailed matched employer-employee data, containing firm-level register information on both automation and offshoring. Automating the production process may displace certain workers, especially workers conducting tasks overtaken by the automation process. A key question is which workers are potentially displaced when automation occurs. In this paper we look closer at the relationship between domestic workers and workers located abroad. Irrespective of offshore indicator used, the results show a negative effect of automation on offshoring, in the post-period. This result is supportive of a hypothesis that automation substitute workers abroad conducting tasks that are automatable in the domestic production process. We also find that automation reduce domestic employment. The reduction is largest among blue collar workers and low skilled workers. These results combined, suggest that automation reduces employment abroad, but does not spur domestic employment.

• Barth, Erling; Reisel, Liza & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2023). Norge har ikke lenger et av de mest kjønnsdelte arbeidsmarkedene i Europa. Dagens næringsliv.
• Barth, Erling; Røed, Marianne; Schøne, Pål & Umblijs, Janis (2023). Does Firm-Automation Reduce Offshoring? Vis sammendrag

  In this paper we analyse the effects of automation on offshoring, using detailed matched employer-employee data, containing firm-level register information on both automation and offshoring. Automating the production process may displace certain workers, especially workers conducting tasks overtaken by the automation process. A key question is which workers are potentially displaced when automation occurs. In this paper we look closer at the relationship between domestic workers and workers located abroad. Irrespective of offshore indicator used, the results show a negative effect of automation on offshoring, in the post-period. This result is supportive of a hypothesis that automation substitute workers abroad conducting tasks that are automatable in the domestic production process. We also find that automation reduce domestic employment. The reduction is largest among blue collar workers and low skilled workers. These results combined, suggest that automation reduces employment abroad, but does not spur domestic employment.

• Barth, Erling; Bryson, Alex & Dale-Olsen, Harald (2023). Creative Disruption – Technology innovation, labour demand and the pandemic .
• Barth, Erling; Røed, Marianne; Schøne, Pål & Umblijs, Janis (2023). Robots and employment.
• Umblijs, Janis; Barth, Erling; Schøne, Pål & Røed, Marianne (2022). Robots and Employment a Firm Level Approach.
• Umblijs, Janis; Barth, Erling; Røed, Marianne & Schøne, Pål (2022). How Robots Change Within-Firm Wage Inequality .
• Dale-Olsen, Harald; Barth, Erling & Bryson, Alex (2022). Creative disruption - Technological innovation, labour demand, and the pandemic.
• Dale-Olsen, Harald; Barth, Erling & Bryson, Alex (2022). Technological innovation, labour demand, and the pandemic.
• Barth, Erling; Dale-Olsen, Harald; Schøne, Pål & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2021). Chutes and ladders? Job Opportunities for Generation Covid.
• Barth, Erling; Dale-Olsen, Harald & Schøne, Pål (2021). Chutes and ladders? Job Opportunities for Generation Covid.
• Barth, Erling; Schøne, Pål; Dale-Olsen, Harald & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2021). The rise and fall - labor demand during COVID-19.
• Østbakken, Kjersti Misje; Barth, Erling; Dale-Olsen, Harald & Schøne, Pål (2020). Nye jobber i fritt fall. Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 37, s. 316–323. doi: 10.18261/issn.1504-7989-2020-04-07.
• Barth, Erling; Røed, Marianne; Schøne, Pål & Umblijs, Janis (2020). Robots and employment.
• Reisel, Liza; Østbakken, Kjersti Misje & Barth, Erling (2019). The Equality Hurdle: Resolving the Welfare State Paradox of Gender Segregation.
• Østbakken, Kjersti Misje; Reisel, Liza & Barth, Erling (2019). Økt likestilling = mer frihet = mer likestilling i arbeidslivet. Likestillingsparadoksets død?
• Barth, Erling; Keute, Anna Lena; Schøne, Pål; von Simson, Kristine & Steffensen, Kjartan (2018). The Importance of Early and Later Skills among Youth: Evidence from Linked Register-PIAAC data.
• Barth, Erling; Keute, Anna Lena; Schøne, Pål; von Simson, Kristine & Steffensen, Kjartan (2018). The Importance of Early and Later Skills among Youth: Evidence from Linked Register-PIAAC data .
• Reisel, Liza; Østbakken, Kjersti Misje; Barth, Erling; Schøne, Pål & Hardoy, Ines (2017). Occupational Segregation in Europe - Dissentangling the Role of Paid and Unpaid Work.
• Barth, Erling; Goldin, Claudia; Kerr, Sari Pekkala & Olivetti, Claudia (2017). The Average Mid-Forties Male College Graduate Earns 55% More Than His Female Counterparts. Harvard Business Review. 2017(06).
• Barth, Erling & Moene, Karl Ove (2015). Likhetsmultiplikatoren: Lønn og politikk i velferdsstaten. Samfunnsøkonomen. s. 58–59.
• Barth, Erling (2015). monopsonistic discrimination and the gender wage gap. I Durlauf, Steven N. & Blume, Lawrence E. (Red.), The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Online Edition. Palgrave Macmillan.
• Dale-Olsen, Harald; Bryson, Alex & Barth, Erling (2015). Do Unions Kill Innovation?
• Barth, Erling; Schøne, Pål & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2014). Hva betyr kjønnssegregering for lønn? I Reisel , Liza & Teigen, Mari (Red.), Kjønnsdeling og etniske skiller på arbeidsmarkedet. Gyldendal Akademisk. s. 205–232.
• Finseraas, Henning; Barth, Erling; Moene, Karl Ove & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2014). Insurance or redistribution motives? Behaviors and beliefs in the welfare state.
• Barth, Erling & Moene, Karl Ove (2013). Globalization, labour market institutions and wage structure. Nordic Economic Policy Review. 1, s. 7–10.
• Barth, Erling (2012). Snur trenden for europeiske velferdsstater?
• Barth, Erling & von Simson, Kristine (2012). Ungdomsarbeidsledighet og konjunkturer. Økonomiske analyser. s. 38–45. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv

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