Ongoing project

Health-Gap: Health, Maturity, and the Gender Gap in Education

The project aims to understand the health consequences of gender differences in school performance and examine whether they are explained by differences in timing of physical maturity between girls and boys.

Project period 2018–2023

Project employer The Research Council of Norway

Project nr. 10242

Project leader Camilla Stoltenberg

Two boys and a girl studying in the library

Photo: Colourbox

Project Backround

Gender differences in school performance have ever-larger consequences for education later in life. The Health Gap project explores causes of differences in school performance and the increasing gender difference in educational attainment, as well as the health consequences that follow.

Educational attainment has increased over many years, and since 1980, Norway has seen the development of an increasing gap between men and women. In most OECD countries, there are more female than male students who enter university for the first time, and the share that completes higher education is higher among women than men. Norway, girls out-perform boys in lower secondary school and throughout the educational system. The causes of the increasing gender gap are unknown, the consequences for health are not clear.

Maturity and gender gap in education

During school years, boys and girls undergo pubertal development with implications for physical, cognitive and social development and growth. There is variation both between and within each sex in the age of puberty, and on average, the onset of puberty occurs at a younger age for girls than boys. At age 15-16, the differences in maturity are sizeable.

At this age, Norwegian youth are finishing lower secondary school and grades achieved at this age are decisive for further life courses. If cognitive development is related to physical development, one would expect that the capacity for learning follows the same maturity pattern. As girls enter puberty earlier than boys, the differences in maturity that this creates could be a substantial contributor to gender differences in school performance.

Objectives

The primary objectives with the Health Gap project are:

To understand the health consequences of gender differences in educational attainment and school performance
To examine whether the difference in timing of physical maturity between girls and boys is a major explanation of gender gaps in education.

Participants

Participant	Degree	Phone	E-mail
Sara Cools Research Professor	PhD	+47 984 96 736	sara.cools@samfunnsforskning.no
Marianne Røed Research Professor	Dr. polit.	+47 480 39 594	marianne.roed@samfunnsforskning.no
Pål Schøne Research Professor	PhD	+47 986 22 125	pal.schone@samfunnsforskning.no
Marte Strøm Research Professor	PhD	+47 408 85 333	marte.strom@samfunnsforskning.no
Camilla Stoltenberg
Martin Flatø
Fartein Torvik
Per Magnus

Hjarnaa, Louise; Møller, Sanne Pagh; Curtis, Alberte Brix; Becker, Ulrik; Andersen, Ove & Torvik, Fartein Ask [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). Alcohol Intake and Academic Performance and Dropout in High School: A Prospective Cohort Study in 65,233 Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health. 73, p. 1083–1092. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2023.07.008.
Kleppestø, Thomas Haarklau; Eilertsen, Espen Moen; van Bergen, Elsje; Sunde, Hans Fredrik; Zietsch, Brendan & Nordmo, Magnus [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2023). Intergenerational transmission of ADHD behaviors: Genetic and environmental pathways. Psychological Medicine. doi: 10.1017/S003329172300315X.
Hannigan, Laurie; Lund, Ingunn Olea; Askelund, Jo Adrian Dahl; Ystrøm, Eivind; Corfield, Elizabeth Claire & Ask, Helga [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). Genotype-environment interplay in associations between maternal drinking and offspring emotional and behavioral problems. Psychological Medicine. 54(1), p. 203–214. doi: 10.1017/S0033291723003057. Full text in Research Archive
Constantinou, Andrea; von Soest, Tilmann Martin; Zachrisson, Henrik Daae; Torvik, Fartein Ask; Cheesman, Rosa Catherine Gillespie & Ystrøm, Eivind (2023). Childhood personality and academic performance: A sibling fixed-effects study. Journal of Personality. p. 1–13. doi: 10.1111/jopy.12900. Full text in Research Archive
Sunde, Hans Fredrik; Kleppestø, Thomas Haarklau; Gustavson, Kristin; Nordmo, Magnus; Reme, Bjørn-Atle & Torvik, Fartein Ask (2022). The ADHD deficit in school performance across sex and parental education: A prospective sibling‐comparison register study of 344,152 Norwegian adolescents. JCPP Advances. 2(1), p. 1–9. doi: 10.1002/jcv2.12064. Full text in Research Archive
Nordmo, Magnus; Kinge, Jonas Minet; Reme, Bjørn-Atle; Flatø, Martin; Suren, Pål & Wörn, Jonathan [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2022). The educational burden of disease: a cohort study. The Lancet Public Health. 7(6), p. e549–e556. doi: 10.1016/S2468-2667(22)00059-7. Full text in Research Archive
Gillespie Cheesman, Rosa Catherine; Eilertsen, Espen Moen; Ayorech, Ziada; Borgen, Nicolai Topstad; Andreassen, Ole & Larsson, Henrik [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2022). How interactions between ADHD and schools affect educational achievement: a family-based genetically sensitive study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 63(10), p. 1174–1185. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.13656. Full text in Research Archive
Eilertsen, Espen Moen; Gillespie Cheesman, Rosa Catherine; Ayorech, Ziada; Røysamb, Espen; Pingault, Jean-Baptiste & Njølstad, Pål Rasmus [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2022). On the importance of parenting in externalizing disorders: an evaluation of indirect genetic effects in families. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 63(10), p. 1186–1195. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.13654. Full text in Research Archive
Burdzovic Andreas, Jasmina; Torvik, Fartein Ask & Lund, Ingunn Olea (2021). Parental binge drinking and offspring’s high school non-completion: A prospective HUNT survey and educational registry study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 230, p. 1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.109189. Full text in Research Archive
Torvik, Fartein Ask; Flatø, Martin; McAdams, Tom A.; Colman, Ian; Silventoinen, Karri & Stoltenberg, Camilla (2021). Early Puberty Is Associated With Higher Academic Achievement in Boys and Girls and Partially Explains Academic Sex Differences. Journal of Adolescent Health. 69(3), p. 503–510. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.02.001. Full text in Research Archive
Lund, Ingunn Olea; Eilertsen, Espen Moen; Gjerde, Line C.; Torvik, Fartein Ask; Røysamb, Espen & Reichborn-Kjennerud, Ted [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2020). Maternal Drinking and Child Emotional and Behavior Problems. Pediatrics. 145(3). doi: 10.1542/peds.2019-2007. Full text in Research Archive
Torvik, Fartein Ask; Eilertsen, Espen Moen; McAdams, Tom A.; Gustavson, Kristin; Zachrisson, Henrik Daae & Brandlistuen, Ragnhild Eek [Show all 11 contributors for this article] (2020). Mechanisms linking parental educational attainment with child ADHD, depression, and academic problems: a study of extended families in The Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 61(9), p. 1009–1018. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.13197. Full text in Research Archive
Brandlistuen, Ragnhild Eek; Flatø, Martin; Stoltenberg, Camilla; Helland, Siri Saugestad & Wang, Mari Vaage (2020). Gender gaps in preschool age: A study of behavior, neurodevelopment and pre-academic skills. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. p. 1–8. doi: 10.1177/1403494820944740.

View all works in Cristin

Torvik, Fartein Ask; Flatø, Martin & Stoltenberg, Camilla (2024). Eva Grinde mot stråmenn. Dagens næringsliv.
Askelund, Adrian Dahl; Hegemann, Laura; Corfield, Elizabeth Claire; Ystrøm, Eivind; Ask, Helga & Havdahl, Alexandra [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). Genetic and environmental factors associated with differentiation between behavioural and emotional problems across early life.
Flatø, Martin; Bratsberg, Bernt Magne; Kotsadam, Andreas; Torvik, Fartein Ask; Røgeberg, Ole Jørgen & Stoltenberg, Camilla (2023). Ready for School? Effects on School Starters of Establishing School Psychology Offices in Norway. CESifo Working Papers.
Stoltenberg, Camilla; Torvik, Fartein Ask & Flatø, Martin (2023). «Guttekrisen» kan ikke avlyses – hverken helt eller nesten. Dagens næringsliv.
Stoltenberg, Camilla; Torvik, Fartein Ask & Flatø, Martin (2023). Guttekrise? Søkelys på kjønn løser ikke alle problemer, men kanskje noen. Dagens næringsliv.
Flatø, Martin & Torvik, Fartein Ask (2023). Kjønnsforskjeller i modenhet .
Torvik, Fartein Ask; Flatø, Martin; Reme, Bjørn-Atle & Stoltenberg, Camilla (2023). Derfor forsker FHI på gutter i skolen. Stavanger Aftenblad. p. 30–30.
Torvik, Fartein Ask; Flatø, Martin & Stoltenberg, Camilla (2023). Derfor må fleksibel skolestart prøves ut. Aftenposten (morgenutg. : trykt utg.).
Flatø, Martin (2023). Strid om fleksibel skolestart. [TV]. NRK Dagsnytt 18.
Torvik, Fartein Ask & Sunde, Hans Fredrik (2023). Gutter, skole og utenforskap.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2023). Kjønnsforskjeller i høyere utdanning.
Flatø, Martin; Reme, Bjørn-Atle; Stoltenberg, Camilla & Torvik, Fartein Ask (2023). Nyanser i gutteforskningen. Morgenbladet.
Torvik, Fartein Ask; Stoltenberg, Camilla & Kinge, Jonas Minet (2023). Sosial bakgrunn, kjønn og psykisk helse.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2023). School performance and mortality in young adulthood: a register-based population study. medRxiv. doi: 10.1101/2023.03.15.23287297.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2023). Det virker: Hvorfor gjør gutter det dårligere enn jenter på skolen, og hva kan vi gjøre med det? . [Radio]. Det virker (podcast).
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2023). Ulik modenhet mellom gutter og jenter kan føre til sosial ulikhet og dårlig helse. [Newspaper]. NTB.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2023). Nyhetsmorgen. [Radio]. NRK P2. Show summary
jenter bedre på skolen gutter fordi de kommer tidlig i puberteten viser en ny rapport fra Folkehelseinstituttet
Torvik, Fartein Ask; Stoltenberg, Camilla; Flatø, Martin; Sunde, Hans Fredrik; Reisel, Liza & Reme, Bjørn-Atle [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). Gutter, skole og utenforskap.
Flatø, Martin (2022). Menns helse og utenforskap.
Sunde, Hans Fredrik (2022). ADHD og skoleprestasjoner: På tvers av kjønn, sosial bakgrunn, og skolefag.
Sunde, Hans Fredrik (2022). LL-444: Livepodkast fra Lærerkonferansen 2022 om ADHD og skolen. [Radio]. Lektor Lomsdalens Innfall.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2022). Hvem får ADHD og hvordan er livet med bokstavene? [Radio]. Morgenbladets forskningspodkast.
Sunde, Hans Fredrik (2022). CAMHS around the Campfire journal club – ADHD deficit in school performance across sex and parental education. [Internet]. https://www.acamh.org/event/camhs-campfire-adhd-deficit-scho.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2022). Er mannen i krise?
Sunde, Hans Fredrik (2022). ADHD og skoleprestasjoner - På tvers av kjønn, sosial bakgrunn, og skolefag.
Wörn, Jonathan (2022). School performance and family formation in early adulthood.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2022). Ulikhet i skoleprestasjoner: – Veldig vanskelig å forklare bort kjønn. [Newspaper]. Morgenbladet.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2022). Skolegang, psykisk helse og utenforskap med fokus på gutter.
Kinge, Jonas Minet & Flatø, Martin (2022). Helseforskjeller starter i barndommen. Dagbladet.
Askelund, Adrian Dahl; Hegemann, Laura; Corfield, Elizabeth Claire; Ask, Helga; Ystrøm, Eivind & Havdahl, Alexandra [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2022). The genomics of psychiatric symptom differentiation in early life. Show summary
Background: An emerging body of evidence suggests that genetic risk for psychiatric conditions is diffuse, probabilistic in nature, and overlaps substantially across different domains. However, psychiatric conditions are diagnosed and treated as specific disorders based on differentiated symptom clusters. In the context of generalised genetic risk, it remains to be determined how distinct psychiatric conditions emerge. The prospects of using genomic data to predict individual-level risk for psychiatric conditions are at present unclear. For prediction to be useful, it needs to be both sensitive (identifying who is at risk) and specific (at risk for what). While increasing sample sizes for genetic discovery may boost sensitivity, the generalised nature of genetic risk implies that identifying predictors of differentiation of psychiatric symptoms may be needed to increase specificity. The Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) is a large population-based pregnancy cohort with genotype and phenotype data, ideally suited to address these questions. Methods: We used the Child Behavior Checklist to assess behavioural and emotional difficulties at ages 1.5, 3, and 5. Symptom¬ differentiation was operationalised as the relative level of these domains over time (behavioural difficulties – emotional difficulties = differentiation). This means that individuals with high scores have relatively more behavioural than emotional difficulties, and the inverse for low scores. These scores can be compared to overall difficulties (behavioural + emotional = total). Following a preregistered analysis plan, we estimated latent growth trajectories of differentiation across early childhood, as well as mediation effects of differentiation on symptoms of psychiatric conditions at age 8. We tested associations between 10 polygenic scores (PGS) for core neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions and the extent (intercept) and rate (slope) of the differentiation process. The analytic sample comprised 57,387 genotyped children (including 12,347 pairs of full siblings) from MoBa. We used multilevel structural equation models to account for unmeasured familial confounding, and corrected for multiple comparisons using FDR. Results: ADHD PGS predicted the extent and rate of differentiation toward behavioural difficulties in early childhood (βintercept = 0.10 [0.09, 0.11]; βslope = 0.02 [0.02, 0.03]), and the extent of differentiation at age 5 in turn mediated 33-37% of the PGS associations with ADHD symptoms at age 8. The ADHD PGS association was smaller for total difficulties (βintercept = 0.05 [0.04, 0.06]; βslope = 0.01 [0.01, 0.02]). Schizophrenia PGS predicted differentiation toward emotional difficulties at age 5 (βintercept = -0.03 [-0.04, -0.02]; βslope = -0.01 [-0.02, -0.01]), and bipolar disorder PGS predicted differentiation toward behavioural difficulties (βintercept = 0.02 [0.01, 0.03]; βslope = 0.01 [0.01, 0.02]) – though in both cases effect sizes were substantially smaller. Discussion: We identify genomic predictors of symptom differentiation in early life. Results support a direct effect of ADHD PGS on differentiation toward behavioural difficulties, independent of individuals’ total burden of symptoms. PGS for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder differentially associates with the development of emotional and behavioural difficulties in early childhood. This research may help refine risk predictions in child psychiatry, an important step to enable early prevention.
Kinge, Jonas Minet; Flatø, Martin & Torvik, Fartein Ask (2021). Mennene alle glemte. Dagbladet.
Flatø, Martin (2021). Kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2021). Debatt om gutter, frafall og lesing.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2021). Longitudinal data for gender, education and health.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2021). Om kjønnsforskjeller i skolen.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2021). Tidlig pubertet, bedre på skolen. Ekko/Nyhetsmorgen. [Radio]. NRK P2.
Torvik, Fartein Ask; Flatø, Martin & Stoltenberg, Camilla (2021). Det bør vekke bekymring at gutter gjør det dårligere i skolen. Forskning.no.
Flatø, Martin; Stoltenberg, Camilla & Torvik, Fartein Ask (2020). Lite fleksibelt fra Lied-utvalget. Aftenposten (morgenutg. : trykt utg.).
Flatø, Martin; Torvik, Fartein Ask & Stoltenberg, Camilla (2020). Gode utdanningsvalg krever modenhet og muligheter. Aftenposten (morgenutg. : trykt utg.).
Flatø, Martin (2020). Karakterprogresjon i ungdomsskolen – et mer rettferdig inntakskriterium.
Torvik, Fartein Ask; Eilertsen, Espen Moen; Hannigan, Laurie John; Havdahl, Alexandra & Ystrøm, Eivind (2020). Assortative mating and the usefulness of polygenic scores in extended pedigrees.
Fretheim, Atle & Flatø, Martin (2020). Smitteeffekter når smittevernet randomiseres. www.tidsskriftet.no.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2020). Gir hjerneforskning svaret på hvorfor jenter er flinkere på skolen enn gutter? [Internet]. forskning.no.
Flatø, Martin & Torvik, Fartein Ask (2020). Uriktige påstander om inntaksmodeller. Bedre Skole. p. 94–95.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2020). Foreldrenes utdanningsnivå påvirker barnas psykiske helse. [Internet]. fhi.no.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2020). Foreldrenes utdanningnivå påvirker om barn får ADHD-symptomer. [Radio]. P4.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2020). Nyhetene 08:00. [TV]. TV2 Nyhetskanalen.
Flatø, Martin; Stoltenberg, Camilla & Torvik, Fartein Ask (2020). Barn fortjener bedre personvern og mer kunnskap. Aftenposten (morgenutg. : trykt utg.). p. 39–40.
Torvik, Fartein Ask (2019). Henriette skjulte turene til psykolog. - Jeg var så redd for å bli stemplet. [Internet]. Nettavisen.no.
Torvik, Fartein Ask; Eilertsen, Espen Moen; Ask, Helga; Gustavson, Kristin; McAdams, Tom A. & Ystrøm, Eivind (2019). Mechanisms linking parental education with symptoms of ADHD and depression in children.
Flatø, Martin; Torvik, Fartein Ask & Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Unyansert fra NRK om kjønnsforskjeller i skolen. Aftenposten (morgenutg. : trykt utg.).
Flatø, Martin; Stoltenberg, Camilla; Ogden, Terje & Nereid, Camilla Trud (2019). Håper at helsesykepleierne blir lyttet til. Sykepleien.
Flatø, Martin & Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Inntaket til videregående bør baseres på karakterprogresjon, ikke karakterer. Aftenposten (morgenutg. : trykt utg.).
Flatø, Martin (2019). Inntak basert på karakterprogresjon.
Flatø, Martin (2019). En skole for alle. Hvordan kan flere gutter lykkes?
Flatø, Martin; Stoltenberg, Camilla; Ogden, Terje & Nereid, Camilla Trud (2019). Det er ikke riktig at vi foreslår å fjerne plikten til skolehelsetjeneste. Sykepleien.
Flatø, Martin (2019). Demografiske perspektiver på den nylig fremlagte NOU-en om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner og utdanningsløp.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). National Commission on Gender Equality in Education.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). National Commission on Gender Equality in Education.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Overlevering av rapporten fra Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Torvik, Fartein Ask; Eilertsen, Espen Moen; Ask, Helga; Gustavson, Kristin; McAdams, Tom A. & Ystrom, Eivind (2019). Intergenerational Associations between Parental Socioneconomic Status and Child ADHD.
Flatø, Martin (2019). Debatt med Erlend Lae Solberg og Audun Lysbakken om karakterprogresjon i Dagsnytt 18. [TV]. NRK.
Flatø, Martin (2019). Tiltak i videregående opplæring. Presentasjon for Kunnskapsdepartementet om tiltak i Stoltenbergutvalgets NOU 2019:3.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.
Stoltenberg, Camilla (2019). Stoltenbergutvalget: Ekspertutvalget om kjønnsforskjeller i skoleprestasjoner.

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Tags: Working Life, Gender Equality

Published Mar. 23, 2020 1:27 PM - Last modified Mar. 4, 2024 3:16 PM

Health-Gap: Health, Maturity, and the Gender Gap in Education

Project Backround

Maturity and gender gap in education

Objectives

Participants

Publications

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