Gender Segregation in the Labour Market

• Barth, Erling; Kerr, Sari Pekkala & Olivetti, Claudia (2021). The dynamics of gender earnings differentials: Evidence from establishment data. European Economic Review. 134. doi: 10.1016/j.euroecorev.2021.103713. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Despite dramatic workforce gains by women in recent decades, a substantial gender earnings gap persists and widens over the course of men’s and women’s careers. Since there are earnings differences across establishments, a key question is the extent to which the widening of the gender pay gap over time arises from differences in career advances within the same establishment versus differential gains from job-to-job moves across establishments. Using a unique match between the 2000 Decennial Census of the United States and the Longitudinal Employer Household Dynamics (LEHD) data, we find that both channels are important and affect workers differently by education. For the college-educated the increasing gap is for the most part due to differential earnings growth within establishment. The between-establishment component explains only 27 percent of the widening of the total gender pay gap for this group. For workers without college degree, the establishment component is the main driver of the, relatively small, widening of the gender earnings gap. For both education groups, marriage plays a crucial role in the establishment component of the increasing earnings gap.

• Iversen, Torben; Rosenbluth, Frances Mccall & Skorge, Øyvind Søraas (2020). The dilemma of gender equality: How labor market regulation divides women by class. Daedalus. 149(1), s. 86–99. doi: 10.1162/DAED_a_01775. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Reisel, Liza; Østbakken, Kjersti Misje & Attewell, Paul (2019). Dynamics of Claims Making and Gender Wage Gaps in the United States and Norway. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society. 26(1), s. 164–187. doi: 10.1093/sp/jxy019. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  This paper compares claims making and gender wage gaps in the United States and Norway, and asks how public sector employment moderates the association between gender segregation and the gender gap in wages in the two countries. Using nationally representative data and hierarchical linear modeling, we analyze gender wage gaps within and between job types. The analyses show that job types heavily concentrated in the public sector, effectively insulated from regular market dynamics, have small if any gender wage gaps. Drawing on relational inequality theory, we argue that this results from the absence of opportunities for individual level claims making.

• Axelsdottir, Laufey & Halrynjo, Sigtona (2018). Gender Balance in Executive Management: Top-Managers' Understanding of Barriers and Solutions from the Demand-Supply Perspective. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society. 25(2), s. 287–314. doi: 10.1093/sp/jxy012. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  The under-representation of women in executive management stands in contrast to their educational attainment, and labor market participation in most countries. This paper examines to what degree top-managers in the gender equal states, Iceland and Norway, agree with established demand–supply explanations of the problem, and suggested instruments for solutions. Drawing on a quantitative dataset of 908 managers in the 250 largest companies, the results emphasize that the divide between demand- and supply-side barriers and solutions may be less clear-cut in practice than theory. Our findings suggest a combination of demand- and supply-policies to enhance gender balance in top-executive management.

• Kitterød, Ragni Hege & Teigen, Mari (2018). Bringing Managers Back in: Support for Gender-Equality Measures in the Business Sector. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies. 8(3), s. 155–175. doi: 10.18291/njwls.v8i3.109545. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  The progression of gender balance in top positions at big corporations in Nordic countries has not lived up to the expectations. Inspired by studies emphasizing the crucial role of top management in gaining support for gender-quality measures to make changes happen, we set out to investigate what kind of policies top managers in Norway would prioritize to further gender balance in the executive ranks. We found that active recruitment policies receive the strongest support and quota and preferential-treatment policies the least support. We found clear similarities between men and women in the ranking of measures, although women generally indicated stronger support for most measures. We found no differences related to gender composition of the management group, but some differences across company types (subject to CBQ or not) were revealed. Although corporate-board quotas received the least support, there was no indication that these measures were strongly objected.

• Teigen, Mari & Skjeie, Hege (2017). The Nordic Gender Equality Model. I Knutsen, Oddbjørn P. (Red.), The Nordic Models in Political Science : Challenged, but Still Viable?. Fagbokforlaget. s. 125–147. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Kitterød, Ragni Hege & Rønsen, Marit (2017). Does Involved Fathering Produce a Larger Total Workload for Fathers Than for Mothers? Evidence from Norway. Family Relations. 66(July), s. 468–483. doi: 10.1111/fare.12264. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Objective: To compare mothers’ and fathers’total workloads within couples with different work-time arrangements in a social democratic welfare state (Norway) and explore possible changes in the 1990s and 2000s. Background: Women’s double workload in families with two full-time jobs has been well documented. However, some argue that fathers,too, may experience the double burden of market and domestic work as they become more involved in parenting. Method: The data are from the Norwegian Time Use Surveys conducted in 1990, 2000,and 2010 among representative samples of the adult population. A subsample of coupled other-sex-parents with at least one child younger than age 20 years were used in the present study. Total workload is the sum of paid and unpaid work activities reported in a time diary. Standard multivariate ordinary least square regressions were used to explore gender differences. Results: Full-time work for both parents entailed approximately equal total workloads for fathers and mothers. However, fathers’ total workload exceeded mothers’ in full-time and part-time couples with school-aged children. Conclusion: Despite equal total workloads and reduced specialization, mothers still do less paid work and more family work than fathers in couples where both work full-time in Norway. This is partly related to the gender-segregated labor market. In full-time and part-time couples With school-aged children, fathers’ longer working hours are not fully offset by more family work for mothers. Implications: Work–family reconciliation policies promoting mothers’ employment and fathers’ family work may have the potential to reduce gender imbalances in parent’s total workloads and moderate gendered specialization patterns.

• Hardoy, Ines; Schøne, Pål & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2017). Kjønnsforskjeller i ledelse: Kohort eller -livsløp? Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 34(1-2), s. 95–107. doi: 10.18261/issn-1504-7989-2017-01-02-06. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Kvinner er fortsatt underrepresentert i lederposisjoner. I denne artikkelen undersøker vi om den lave andelen kvinner i lederstillinger kan tilbakeføres til forskjeller mellom kohorter eller om dette er en konsekvens av valg og muligheter gjennom livsløpet. Dersom kjønnsforskjellene i ledelse skyldes kohortforskjeller, ved at forskjellen er større blant eldre arbeidstakerne enn blant yngre, vil vi forvente at kjønnsforskjellene i ledelse reduseres over tid.Motsatt, dersom kjønnsforskjellene skyldes livsløpsforskjeller, så vil vi forvente at kjønnsforskjellen i ledelse øker med alder, når de unge kohortene blir eldre. Resultater fra denne artikkelen viser at det er kjønnsforskjeller i ledelse gjennom yrkeslivet som er hovedforklaringen.

• Goldin, Claudia; Kerr, Sari Pekkala; Olivetti, Claudia & Barth, Erling (2017). The Expanding Gender Earnings Gap: Evidence from the LEHD-2000 Census. The American Economic Review. 107(5), s. 110–114. doi: 10.1257/aer.p20171065. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Hardoy, Ines; Schøne, Pål & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2017). Children and the gender gap in management . Labour Economics. 47, s. 124–137. doi: 10.1016/j.labeco.2017.05.009. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Women are typically less likely to hold management positions than men. Despite the converging roles of men and women in several labour market outcomes, the gender management gap is persistent. In this paper, we analyse the impact of children on the gender gap in management, focussing on the within-couple gap, allowing us to control for both observed and unobserved attributes of the spouse. The main findings suggest that the gender gap in management increases considerably after the arrival of the first child. Nine years after the birth of the firstborn child, the male–female gap in management has increased by approximately 5 percentage points. Heterogeneity analyses suggest that the gender gap is wider, and gets steeper over time, for couples where the father has a management education or higher education, compared to the gap for the overall sample. In households where the spouses share the parental leave and the mother returns to full-time employment after the leave, the increase in the gender management gap is much smaller, and it is no longer significant towards the end of the period.

• Halrynjo, Sigtona & Teigen, Mari (2016). Likestilling i framtidas arbeidsliv? I Halrynjo, Sigtona & Teigen, Mari (Red.), Ulik likestilling i arbeidslivet. Gyldendal Akademisk. s. 299–309. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Reisel, Liza; Hegna, Kristinn & Imdorf, Christian (2015). Gender segregation in vocational education: Introduction. I Imdorf, Christian; Hegna, Kristinn & Reisel, Liza (Red.), Gender segregation in vocational education. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. s. 1–22. doi: 10.1108/S0195-631020150000031023. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Schøne, Pål (2015). Kvinner, barn og valg av sektor: Har offentlig sektor fortsatt en tiltrekning? Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 32(4), s. 360–376. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Offentlig sektor er kvinnedominert. Vi analyserer betydningen av barn for kvinners valg av offentlig sektor. Er det slik at offentlig sektor har en tiltrekning på kvinner i småbarnsfasen? Resultatene viser at offentlig sektor har en tiltrekningskraft for kvinner med barn. Kvinner med barn har høyere sannsynlighet for å arbeide i offentlig sektor sammenlignet med kvinner uten barn, og denne forskjellen øker med antall barn. Videre finner vi at deler av kvinners seleksjon inn i offentlig sektor skjer i perioden med barnefødsler og senere småbarnsfase. Hvordan kan vi forklare dette funnet? Dersom kvinner oppfatter offentlig sektor som en mer «familievennlig» sektor enn privat sektor, for eksempel ved at tilgangen på deltidsarbeid er større, og kvinner mer enn menn setter pris på slike kjennetegn, kan det føre til at kvinner i større grad enn menn velger denne sektoren, og da spesielt i perioder av livet hvor man har store familiære forpliktelser.

• Reisel, Liza & Teigen, Mari (2015). Kontinuitet og endring - kjønnsdeling på arbeidsmarkedet, Myndighet og medborgerskap: Festskrift til Gro Hagemann på 70-årsdagen 3. september 2015. Novus Forlag. s. 323–338.

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• Imdorf, Christian; Hegna, Kristinn & Reisel, Liza (2015). Gender segregation in vocational education. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 300 s.

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• Halrynjo, Sigtona & Stoltenberg, Christina Hoelgaard (2017). CORE Norwegian Gender Balance Scorecard 200 : February 2017. Institutt for samfunnsforskning: CORE Kjernemiljø for kjønnslikestilling - Institute for Social Research: Centre for research on gender equality. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  CORE Topplederbarometer kartlegger kjønnsbalansen i styrer og toppledergrupper i de største selskapene i norsk næringsliv, målt etter omsetning. Vi kartlegger også kjønnsbalansen i stabs- og linjeposisjoner – og følger utviklingen over tid. CORE Topplederbarometer 200 kartlegger kjønnsbalansen i de 200 største selskapene i Norge. I denne utgaven dobler vi dermed utvalget fra CORE Topplederbarometer 100 som kartlegger kjønnsbalansen i de 100 største selskapene i Norge.

• Barth, Erling; Kerr, Sari Pekkala & Olivetti, Claudia (2017). The Dynamics of Gender Earnings Differentials: Evidence from Establishment Data. NBER Working Paper # 23381. Vis sammendrag

  We use a unique match between the 2000 Decennial Census of the United States and the Longitudinal Employer Household Dynamics (LEHD) data to analyze how much of the increase in the gender earnings gap over the lifecycle comes from shifts in the sorting of men and women across high- and low-pay establishments and how much is due to differential earnings growth within establishments. We find that for the college educated the increase is substantial and, for the most part, due to differential earnings growth within establishment by gender. The between component is also important. Differential mobility between establishments by gender can explain 27 percent of the widening of the pay gap for this group. For those with no college, the, relatively small, increase of the gender gap over the lifecycle can be fully explained by differential moves by gender across establishments. The evidence suggests that, for both education groups, the between-establishment component of the increasing wage gap is due almost entirely to those who are married.

• Østbakken, Kjersti Misje; Reisel, Liza; Schøne, Pål; Barth, Erling & Hardoy, Ines (2017). Kjønnssegregering og mobilitet i det norske arbeidsmarkedet. Institutt for samfunnsforskning.

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• Iversen, Torben; Rosenbluth, Frances & Skorge, Øyvind Søraas (2019). The Dilemma of Gender Equality: How Labor Market Regulation Divides Women by Class. Vis sammendrag

  Women shoulder a heavier burden of family work than men in modern society, preventing them from matching male success in the external labor market. At least hypothetically, limiting working hours is a plausible way to level the playing field by creating the possibility of less gendered roles for both sexes. But why then are heavily regulated European labor markets associated with a smaller share of women in top management positions compared to liberal market economies such as the US? We explain this puzzle with reference to the difficulty of ambitious women to signal their commitment to high-powered careers in regulated markets. The absence of hours restrictions, on the other hand, allow some women to signal their willingness to relinquish family responsibilities by working extraordinarily long hours at the office, women have a significantly higher chance of rising to managerial positions. We also note, however, that the absence of hours restrictions and other labor protections correspond with larger gender wage gaps lower on the occupational ladder. Moreover, the women who rise to managerial positions remain underrepresented even in liberal market economies.

• Reisel, Liza & Hegna, Kristinn (2019). Kjønnsdelte utdanningsvalg i likestillingslandet.
• Reisel, Liza (2019). Dagsnytt 18: Menn dominerer toppen i norsk kokkekunst. [Radio]. NRK.
• Reisel, Liza (2019). Hvorfor velger ungdom fortsatt kjønnsdelt? Om kjønn, status og utdanningsvalg.
• Reisel, Liza (2019). Understanding Stability and Change in the Gender Segregated Labour Market.
• Reisel, Liza (2019). Betydningen av kjønn for ungdommers utdanningsvalg.
• Reisel, Liza; Østbakken, Kjersti Misje & Barth, Erling (2019). The Equality Hurdle: Resolving the Welfare State Paradox of Gender Segregation.
• Halrynjo, Sigtona & Blair-Loy, Mary (2019). Gender inequality in business careers in the U.S. and Norway: How regulatory and moral logics compete within the liberal economic logic of global capitalism.
• Østbakken, Kjersti Misje; Reisel, Liza & Barth, Erling (2019). Økt likestilling = mer frihet = mer likestilling i arbeidslivet. Likestillingsparadoksets død?
• Skorge, Øyvind Søraas (2018). The gender equality paradox.
• Skorge, Øyvind Søraas (2018). Care for career: Mothers, toddlers, and the benefit of daycare services for female leadership.
• Skorge, Øyvind Søraas (2018). Care for career: Mothers, toddlers, and the benefit of daycare services for female leadership.
• Reisel, Liza (2018). Hvorfor vil ikke jenter bli rørleggere? Kjønn, status og utdanningsvalg blant ungdom.
• Reisel, Liza (2018). Kjønnsdelte utdanningsvalg i likestillingslandet Norge.
• Reisel, Liza (2018). Hva vet vi om kjønnsdelingen i arbeidsmarkedet?
• Reisel, Liza (2018). Kvinnen anno 2018. [Radio]. NRK.
• Reisel, Liza (2018). Kjønnsdelte utdanningsvalg i likestillingslandet Norge.
• Reisel, Liza (2018). Betydningen av et kjønnsdelt arbeidsmarked.
• Reisel, Liza (2017). Verdens rikeste land: Hvorfor velger menn og kvinner forskjellige yrker? [Radio]. NRK P3.
• Reisel, Liza (2017). Gutters og jenters valg av videregående utdanning. Hvilken rolle spiller kjønn?
• Reisel, Liza (2017). Fremtidens arbeidskraft – hvordan velger dagens gutter og jenter utdanning og yrke?
• Reisel, Liza (2017). Kjønnsavdelingen #8: Likestilling på universitetet: Kjønn, klasse eller karakterer? [Radio]. Kjønnsavdelingen podkast.
• Seehuus, Sara Marie Jorunn & Reisel, Liza (2017). Horizons of opportunity: Unpacking the logics of gendered educational choices.
• Reisel, Liza; Østbakken, Kjersti Misje; Barth, Erling; Schøne, Pål & Hardoy, Ines (2017). Occupational Segregation in Europe - Dissentangling the Role of Paid and Unpaid Work.
• Halrynjo, Sigtona (2017). Career and parenthood in the Nordic context – beyond family-friendly policies.
• Kitterød, Ragni Hege (2017). Går vi mot et symmetrisk foreldreskap i Norge? Yrkes- og familiearbeid blant foreldrepar.
• Kitterød, Ragni Hege (2017). Work-family policies and practices in Norway.
• Reisel, Liza (2017). Hva betyr det at arbeidsmarkedet er kjønnsdelt?
• Reisel, Liza (2017). Fremtidens arbeidsliv blir ikke mindre kjønnsdelt av seg selv. Aftenposten Viten.
• Reisel, Liza (2017). Fremtidens arbeidskraft – hvordan velger dagens gutter og jenter utdanning og yrke?
• Barth, Erling; Goldin, Claudia; Kerr, Sari Pekkala & Olivetti, Claudia (2017). The Average Mid-Forties Male College Graduate Earns 55% More Than His Female Counterparts. Harvard Business Review. 2017(06).
• Halrynjo, Sigtona (2017). Skjevdeling bremser likestillingen. Dagens næringsliv.
• Halrynjo, Sigtona (2017). Kvinner og menn på toppen av næringslivet I et komparativt perspektiv. Norge og USA. Lansering av CORE Topplederbarometer 200.
• Halrynjo, Sigtona (2017). Kjønns(u)balanse i toppledelse. Betydning av kvoteringslov og karrieredilemmaer i Norge.
• Teigen, Mari (2017). Er dette det norske samfunn? [Bokanmeldelse]. Tidsskrift for samfunnsforskning. 58(02), s. 232–235. doi: 10.18261/issn.1504-291X-2017-02-07.
• Reisel, Liza (2016). Kvinner og utdanning i mannsdominerte bransjer.
• Imdorf, Christian; Hegna, Kristinn & Eberhard, Verena (2016). Geschlechtersegregation im Bildungssystem – Welche Rolle spielt die Berufsbildung? Berufsbildung in Wissenschaft und Praxis. 2016(2), s. 23–27. Vis sammendrag

  Der Beitrag geht der Frage nach, inwieweit die im (Berufs-)Bildungssystem vorhandene geschlechtsspezifische Verteilung von Männern und Frauen auf Bildungsgänge von institutionellen Rahmenbedingungen des Bildungssystems beeinflusst wird. Dies wird im Beitrag für den Zugang zu vollqualifizierenden Bildungsgängen (Allgemein- und Berufsbildung) im Anschluss an die Sekundarstufe I anhand eines Vergleichs der Länder Deutschland, Norwegen und Kanada untersucht. Als Datenbasis für Deutschland kann dabei auf die BIBB-Übergangsstudie zurückgegriffen werden.

• Reisel, Liza; Attewell, Paul & Østbakken, Kjersti Misje (2016). Dynamics of Gender and Economic Niches in Norway and the United States.
• Halrynjo, Sigtona & Blair-Loy, Mary (2016). Does a family-friendly welfare state help shatter the corporate glass ceiling? Comparing Norway and the U.S.
• Halrynjo, Sigtona (2016). Hvordan står det til med kjønnsbalansen på toppen av næringslivet? Menn, kvinner og lederkarrierer – på ulike betingelser? .
• Kitterød, Ragni Hege (2016). Policies and practices regarding the articulation of professional, family and personal life in Norway – an analysis adopting a time use approach.
• Kitterød, Ragni Hege & Halrynjo, Sigtona (2016). Can paternity leave change gendered work-family patterns? An analysis of recent research from the Nordic countries.
• Kitterød, Ragni Hege (2016). Norwegian Gender Equality Policy: Historical Background, Development and Today's Challenges.
• Kitterød, Ragni Hege (2016). Tidsbruk og arbeidstidsmønstre blant mødre og fedre.
• Halrynjo, Sigtona (2016). Kan vi tenke nytt om ledelse og livsfaser? Når er det «for sent» med en topplederkarriere?
• Halrynjo, Sigtona (2016). Work-family dynamics and the logics of competition, care and regulation.
• Blair-Loy, Mary & Halrynjo, Sigtona (2016). Bending Norms: Gender and the Cultural Understandings of Merit and Devotion.
• Reisel, Liza (2015). Bokanmeldelse: Torgeir Nyen og Anna Hagen Tønder: Yrkesfagene under press. Søkelys på arbeidslivet. 32(3), s. 279–280.
• Halrynjo, Sigtona (2015). Karriere, kjønn og omsorgsansvar. Hva skjer i småbarnsfasen?
• Halrynjo, Sigtona (2015). Kvinner og menn i toppledelse – karriereliv og familieliv.
• Halrynjo, Sigtona (2015). Kjønn, karriere og familieliv i møte med konkurranselogikkens spilleregler.
• Kitterød, Hege (2015). Holdninger til kjønnskvotering i styrer blant toppledere i norsk næringsliv. Mer positive når bedriften selv har lovkrav?
• Kitterød, Hege (2015). Men in families – changes in time use?
• Barth, Erling (2015). monopsonistic discrimination and the gender wage gap. I Durlauf, Steven N. & Blume, Lawrence E. (Red.), The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Online Edition. Palgrave Macmillan.
• Blair-Loy, Mary & Halrynjo, Sigtona (2015). How shatterproof are glass ceilings in the business sector? Cultural and structural factors reinforcing gender inequality in the US and Norway.

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